The Epic of Gilgamesh is a historic story of the king of Uruk, Gilgamesh. But ultimately, death wins. Circle each antithetical phrase. The Epic of Gilgamesh opens with a prologue introducing Gilgamesh as a heroic character. Regardless of the moral dilemma of having to leave his neighbors and friends to die, Utnapishtim loyally completed the task set him by Enki. Detailed explanations, analysis, and citation info for every important quote on LitCharts. It is a form of control, and, there even might be a hint that civilization has one of its roots in the desire of men to keep the attractive women handy. The main character in the book The Epic of Gilgamesh is Gilgamesh himself. Gilgamesh is rich in religious symbolism. Real Trees and Questionable Geography Refine any search. He saw the Secret, discovered the Hidden, he brought information of (the time) before the Flood. The hatchway of Utnapishtims Day and night, dance and play, wear fresh clothes. A statue of Gilgamesh at the University of Sydney. The Epic of Gilgamesh (/ l m /) is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia.The literary history of Gilgamesh begins with five Sumerian poems about Bilgamesh (Sumerian for "Gilgamesh"), king of Uruk, dating from the Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100 BC). in the story. This drives him, but, In The Epic of Gilgamesh, men and gods each have their place in a clearly-defined hierarchy. By entering your email address you agree to receive emails from SparkNotes and verify that you are over the age of 13. "Gilgamesh was called a god and a man; Enkidu was an animal and a man. The earliest strands of Gilgameshs narrative can be found in five Sumerian poems, and other versions include those written in Elamite, Hittite and Hurrian. Gilgamesh sets about civilising Enkidu, a feat achieved through the novel means of a week of sex with the wise priestess, Shamhat (whose very name in Akkadian suggests both beauty and voluptuousness). It is an epic poem which narrates the story of the life of a man named Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh (Akkadian: , romanized: Gilgame; originally Sumerian: , romanized: Bilgames) was a hero in ancient Mesopotamian mythology and the protagonist of the Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem written in Akkadian during the late 2nd millennium BC. In the very beginning of Tablet I it is read: Anu granted him the totality of knowledge of all. Contact us Enlil heard the clamour and he said to the gods in council, The uproar of mankind is intolerable and sleep is no longer possible by reason of the babel. So the gods agreed to exterminate mankind. A common form of the quest narrative involves the hero leaving their comfortable home in civilization to venture out through nature, and then returning with new knowledge. It is a battle between the virtues of civilization and the virtues of man in his natural, savage state. Featured cast members include Assyriologist Ben Foster . . Civilization again, is self defeating. Only the gods live for ever with glorious Shamash, but as for us men, our days are numbered, our occupations are a breath of wind. But soon, they become good friends, so much so that Gilgamesh soon regarded him as a brother and equal, and a part of his conscience. Gilgamesh started in the story as a cruel king that used forced labor to build his kingdom and would rape women. which mortals are capable. Its important to keep in mind that the Epic was written in ancient Mesopotamia, an area that has been called the cradle of civilization, as the first known city-states in human history began there. The epics flood story pans out almost exactly like the tale of Noahs ark in the Bible. The daemon Humbaba is also an animal type force, as he is in charge of guarding some of the most attractive plants of nature: the beautiful and sweet smelling cedar forests. This version was originally compiled by the priest, scribe and exorcist, Sin-leqi-uninni, around 1100 BCE. What qualities do they convey? There is no permanence. One can see obvious similarities between Utnapishtims life and the story of Noahs Ark. One example is the cedar forest. Gilgamesh must confront the harsh fact of his own death as a king. The rock and the axe represent the man he will soon contend with- the man who will become his most trusted companion and counselor, and the only one who has the power to save him. The Epic of Gilgamesh begins with an invitation to the reader to engage in the story of the great king who, at first, is depicted as a proud and arrogant tyrant. The female characters in the tale are also shown to have great influence over the male characters, and appear . Enkidu again tells, Part 3: Ishtar and Gilgamesh, and the Death of Enkidu. In what ways might Enkidu be a match for Gilgamesh? What is worse (especially from the point of view of the gods) is that the forces of the impulse, and the forces of the mind, may join forces and dominate all in their paths. Macbeth) in the essay title portion of your citation. It is a different thing altogether to say that he was more powerful in his civilized state. The Epic of Gilgamesh and the Hebrew Bible have strikingly similar themes and storylines. This could be a little foreshadowing too. From the creators of SparkNotes, something better. Her translations point out tales of the Harlot, Gilgamesh's dreams, the strangling of the Lion and the hunter that is somewhat unrelated to the ultimate story, but finds itself creating a larger picture for the Epic of Gilgamesh.1 1 Metaphor "Enkidu was an axe at my side." 14 Ekidnu was a companion/wild man, not an actual axe. Civilization is ultimately pointless. What kind of man and leader does this culture seem to admire? He is tall, consummately handsome, and strong, a model of physical perfection. Comfort in the City, read analysis of Friendship, Love, and Sexuality. The Scorpions guard the gates of Mashu. These are all sacrifices that come with the benefits fo civilization: one might make a cogent argument that they cancel each other out. From the creators of SparkNotes, something better. The Translation of the Epic of Gilgamesh used in this piece was translated by Maureen Gallery Kovacs, made into electronic format by Wold Carnahan in 1998 and can be found at electronictexts. Do brothers divide an inheritance to keep forever, does the flood-time of rivers endure? Both tales tell of a flood that destroys almost all humanity. bad qualities: self-righteous, selfish, prideful. The very fact that Ishtar is interested in being Gilgameshs lover (and that she has had many other mortal lovers in the past) proves the basic equality between gods and men, in everything but that of eternal life (Tablet VI). in Gilgamesh. Detailed quotes explanations with page numbers for every important quote on the site. Archaeologists are yet to discover any actual evidence that could date the epic back to its time of origin, but multiple copies of certain snippets of the epic have been found in modern-day Israel, Syria, and Turkey. You'll be able to access your notes and highlights, make requests, and get updates on new titles. brides chamber and wrestles with Gilgamesh. This epic story was discovered in the ruins of the library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh by Hormuzd Rassam in 1853. SparkNotes Plus subscription is $4.99/month or $24.99/year as selected above. For when the Gods made man. the ability to wrestle a bull suggests humanitys ability to harness He is at first an arrogant and harsh ruler, but his friendship with Enkidu and Enkidu's ensuing death show Gilgamesh that even the greatest heroic feats cannot transcend mortality. Hence, civilization cannot give life or happiness. Long before the time of Gilgamesh, Utnapishtim ruled as the king and high priest of the city of Shuruppak. The Epic of Gilgamesh is influenced by a number of societies that lived in Mesopotamia, the area between these two rivers. He took part in ceaseless battles, forced his people to construct endless projects, and raped any woman he fancied. Gilgamesh also contains a lot of metaphors. The Washington Post juxtaposed the heart-warming story of the find against the destruction and looting in Syria and Iraq. In his sorrow over the death of Enkidu, and the fear of the inevitable death that awaited him, Gilgamesh was keen to find Utnapishtim. Keep your head washed, bathe in water, appreciate the child who holds your hand, let your wife enjoy herself in your lap. On the other hand, her counterpart is Rimat, the maternal figure, the older, mature woman who has children, and hence, under normal circumstances, must moderate her behavior and be more mature. All of these qualities are familiar to anyone interested in Greek or Roman myths. . To go to Uruk and ask Gilgamesh to lend him a prostitute to weaken Enkidu. Gilgamesh is semi-divine (two-thirds god and one-third human) king that tyrannizes the people of Uruk. 100) Ishtar: Simile: Metaphor: " [You, a frost that congeals They're like having in-class notes for every discussion!, This is absolutely THE best teacher resource I have ever purchased. Teach your students to analyze literature like LitCharts does. List some of the characteristics attributed to Gilgamesh. After a perilous journey over the waters of death, Gilgamesh finally meets Utanapishtim and asks for the secret to immortality. Similes in the Gilgamesh Epic (2010) Benjamin R. Foster. For six days and nights, the gods decreed that mankind be destroyed by flooding earth for . He would do whatever he wanted to do and get who and whatever he wanted. Save my name and email in this browser for the next time I comment. For almost two millennia, clay tablets containing stories of Gilgamesh and his companions lay lost and buried, alongside many tens of thousands of other cuneiform texts, beneath the remnants of the great Library of Ashurbanipal. The best-known version is the Standard Babylonian Version, written in Akkadian (a language written in cuneiform that functioned as the language of diplomacy in the second millennium BCE). He insults the beauteous goddess of love, Ishtar, and slays the mighty Bull of Heaven. "I will reveal to you a mystery, I will tell you a secret of the gods." There is something very humbling about reading stories written more than 4,000 years ago. About the Title The title Gilgamesh refers to the hero of the epic, the legendary King Gilgamesh. But he also told him about a magical plant that could possibly help him gain eternal life. In his case, the role of the serpent is necessary for him to move past his feelings toward life and death and become a better king, making this serpent less of a villain and more a catalyst for change. | Thus the Epics portrayal of civilization is especially contemporary for its time, but. Detailed explanations, analysis, and citation info for every important quote on LitCharts. I read the Epic of Gilgamesh and respect it's place in history, the context, and what it represents. What objections do the people have about Gilgamesh's behavior? The highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and continuous delivery of valuable software, Enabler Epics are used to advance what in order to support upcoming Business Epics? He is at first an arrogant and harsh ruler, but his friendship with. List some images/metaphors that are used to describe Gilgamesh. The society of Mesopotamia at the time was highly advanced, urban and possessed of technology and science. Orale. At the beginning of the book, one realizes that Gilgamesh is an arrogant person. It was carved in 12 tablets by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia. The text provides multiple answers, allowing the reader to wrestle with these ideas alongside the hero. Instant PDF downloads. Add commas as needed. My father, give me the Bull of Heaven to destroy Gilgamesh. Now that I have toiled and strayed so far over the wilderness, am I to sleep, and let the earth cover my head for ever? Gilgamesh also explores the relationship between humans and animals, and how we can never escape our animal natures. (including. From the days of old there is no permanence. $18.74/subscription + tax, Save 25% In early excerpts, he is portrayed as a wise man, building magnificent temples and towers in his Sumerian city, surrounded by high walls. The splendour and grandeur of the Cedar Forest is described poetically in Tablet V: They (Gilgamesh and Enkidu) stood marvelling at the forest, They were gazing at the Cedar Mountain, the dwelling of the gods, the throne-dais of the goddesses . In 2015, the publication of a new fragment of Tablet V by Andrew George and Farouk Al-Rawi made international news. O my lord, you do not know this monster and that is the reason you are not afraid. The Epic of Gilgamesh is an ancient Mesopotamian epic poem. But the unsystematic control of the desires is traded in for a more systematic form of control over nature and people as a whole, and this system comes to be known as science, something the Babylonians knew very well, particularly in mathematics and astronomy, as is well known. The answer lies in the history of the narratives reception. To counter the ever-growing menace that Gilgamesh was presenting to his people, the gods made Enkidu from water and clay to be equal to Gilgamesh in terms of might and power. Since Gilgameshs reappearance into popular awareness in the last hundred years, the Standard Babylonian Version of the epic has become accessible in numerous translations. The rich history of the Epic of Gilgamesh puts its legacy beyond that of a simple archaeological artefact. Still grieving for his friend, he sets out on a quest to learn the secret of eternal life, abandoning all his glory and power as a king. The fact that the city of Uruk is so advanced gives pause to the gods. The Epic of Gilgamesh chronicles the adventures of the semi-divine King Gilgamesh (circa 2700 B.C.E.) Gilgamesh spoke to him, to Urshanabi the ferryman, Urshanabi, climb up on to the wall of Uruk, inspect its foundation terrace, and examine well the brickwork; see if it is not of burnt bricks; and did not the seven wise men lay these foundations? Gilgamesh is also known as Bilgames in Sumerian and Gilgamos in Greek and was part god, part man. The Cedar Forest is where Humbaba lives. O my Lord, you may go on if you choose into this land, but I will go back to the city. Like the story of Prometheus, this seems to be the motive force for the later flood: the semi-divine status of human beings that had broken their bonds, or, more cynically, had forgotten their place. Likewise, among the gods, Enlil is humbled after ordering mankind destroyed by a flood, because it was not his place to, Instant downloads of all 1699 LitChart PDFs For this reason, many historians have put it as the oldest remaining remnant of an epic in the history of Western literature. It records the story of Gilgamesh when he was a young king, and includes considerations on mortality and humanity. That Enkidu goes to Uruk and befriends Gilgamesh. Just as interesting is the role of the animal (both literally and figuratively), in the work. The name 'Epic of Gilgamesh' is given to the Babylonian poem that tells the deeds of Gilgamesh, the greatest king and mightiest hero of ancient Mesopotamian legend. (including. If Gilgamesh represents the pride of civilization, what might Enkidu represent? Oh man, so totally not a literary expert here. He then returns to his kingdom with a promise to be a better king and use his divine skills for the greater good. Get Annual Plans at a discount when you buy 2 or more! These literary devices are: repetition, imagery and flashbacks. Literature and The Epic of Gilgamesh Background. Rhetorical devices, such as the use of figurative language, that is, language, which creates a picture, or a figure, contribute to the creation of an epic that, This assignment asks you to identify these features in terms of simile and, a comparison between unlike objects using like or as, other text) and provide for each the following from the text. Macquarie University apporte un financement en tant que membre adhrent de TheConversation AU. Gilgamesh is rich in religious symbolism. For a long time, he remained completely isolated from the civilized world, but gradually his interactions with humans became more regular as he would free animals trapped by hunters. In those days the lord Gilgamesh departed, the son of Ninsun, the king, peerless, without an equal among men, who did not neglect Enlil his master. All the townspeople admire Enkidu when he enters Uruk. Written in cuneiform on 12 clay tablets, this Akkadian version dates from around 1300 to 1000 B.C. The story briefly transitions into verse: Would not have made it through AP Literature without the printable PDFs. This imagery could represent several different things. Not to mention the broader fact that the whole concept of civilization is to control what cannot be controlled: the natural order. The death of Enkidu is a pivotal point in the narrative. Feel free to murder me, but I read it and maybe it's just too fine wine for an amateur like me. There he shall wash his long hair clean as snow in the water, he shall throw off his skins and let the sea carry them away, and the beauty of his body shall be shown, the fillet on his forehead shall be renewed, and he shall be given clothes to cover his nakedness. They ended up becoming great friends, so much so that Gilgamesh was devastated when Enkidu died of an illness inflicted by the gods. A 12th tablet was added to the Akkadian version at a later date as a sequel to the original 11 tablets. He turns his back on family and friends to wander the wildness in search of something he can never have. SparkNotes PLUS He abandons the people of Uruk and does not even stop to think about them before leaving, despite being their king. Religious rituals in Mesopotamia involved sacrifices, festivals, sex, dream interpretation, and shamanic magic, all of which appear in the story. This historic piece of poetic literature actually predates Homers earliest writings by 1,500 years. Typical of the pagan mentality, the gods are actually human beings with extraordinary powers, not different from the modern superhero (rather than the God of the Hebrews or Christians). The Epic of Gilgamesh. Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin, Wikimedia Commons, destruction of antiquities in the Middle East, priest, scribe and exorcist, Sin-leqi-uninni, Gilgamesh: A New Rendering in English Verse. Although I am no better than a dead man, still let me see the light of the sun. It is a battle between the virtues of civilization and the virtues of man in his natural, "savage" state. What values seem to be important to the culture? Mankind, whose offshoot is snapped off like a reed in a canebreak, the fine youth and lovely girl. It is said that on reaching Uruk, Enkidu wrestled with Gilgamesh as a test of strength. He is powerful and a good leader, provides protection for his subjects. You'll also get updates on new titles we publish and the ability to save highlights and notes. The Epic of Gilgamesh confronts a number of important themes, but none is more prominent than that of confronting ones mortality. To keep him occupied, the Mesopotamian deities create a companion for him, the hairy wild man Enkidu. but still being connected to it. Through toil you wear yourself out, you fill your body with grief, your long lifetime you are bringing near (to a premature end)! He began abusing his people, raping any woman he had his eye on and forcing people to work on his personal construction projects. Hence, even though Enkidu is afraid to take on the guardian of the cedars, the two of them together are more than a match for the demon. The first transition to his change was Enkidu. Gilgamesh, the man "who saw the deep," is praised: he is the bringer of wisdom, and the man who built the massive walls around his city, Uruk. In the beginning, Siduri tries her best to talk Gilgamesh out of his search for eternal life, a quest that she considered a fools errand. What is Enkidu's first reaction to her idea? Death, and the real purposeless of civilization, is the dominant theme, but it attacks civilization in that the works of men will all perish, nothing will remain but memories. state. His happiness depends on how he chooses to reconcile himself with this truth. Egypt) and titles (e.g. To curb Gilgameshs behavior, the gods created an equally powerful being named Enkidu to fight him. Over time, it has been through multiple adaptations and retellings by subsequent generations. States that Enkidu was strength and protection Find an example in The Epic of Gilgamesh Personification - giving human . 1901), Lexpertise universitaire, lexigence journalistique. Citing the earliest examples of the Epic of Gilgamesh, and if the myths around Gilgamesh are to be believed, the epic stood right at the top of the great literary masterpieces of ancient times. For the next 7 days, you'll have access to awesome PLUS stuff like AP English test prep, No Fear Shakespeare translations and audio, a note-taking tool, personalized dashboard, & much more! Seductions There are two important seductions in Gilgamesh, one successful and one a failure. Gilgameshs quest is first motivated by pride, and in Enkidus death he pays an enormous price. The dream was marvelous but the terror was great; we must treasure the dream whatever the terror; for the dream has shown that misery comes at last to the healthy man, the end of life is sorrow. And Gilgamesh lamented, Now I will pray to the great gods, for my friend had an ominous dream.. While many of the great literary works of ancient Greece and Rome were studied continuously throughout the development of Western culture, the Epic of Gilgamesh comes from a forgotten age. Some of the clearest advice is provided by the beer deity, Siduri (yes, a goddess of beer), who suggests Gilgamesh set his mind less resolvedly on extending his life. Use up and down arrows to review and enter to select. Complete your free account to access notes and highlights. Please wait while we process your payment. Which of the eternal questions/conflicts seem at this point to be part of this story? Here is a list of 10 interesting points to summarize the Epic of Gilgamesh: The prelude to the Epic of Gilgamesh primarily revolves around the introduction of Gilgamesh, the King of Uruk, and the subsequent events that shape his journey. Ultimately, then, all is sublimated under the idea of civilization and sacrifice. English. The gods created him to be Gilgamesh's equal in order to stand up to him, Epic of Gilgamesh Tablet 1 Study Questions, The Epic of Gilgamesh: Tablets I, II, VII, IX, The Language of Composition: Reading, Writing, Rhetoric, Lawrence Scanlon, Renee H. Shea, Robin Dissin Aufses, Edge Reading, Writing and Language: Level C, David W. Moore, Deborah Short, Michael W. Smith. The Epic of Gilgamesh: Thoughts on genre and meaning Authors: Andrew George SOAS, University of London Content uploaded by Andrew George Author content Content may be subject to copyright. This is by far the more popular and well-preserved version, composed by Sin-liqe-unninni somewhere between 1300 and 1000 BC in contemporary Mesopotamia. to seek safety or boldly venture through them. The Epic of Gilgamesh stands out as one of the earliest-known pieces of writings in human history. Our, "Sooo much more helpful thanSparkNotes. My students love how organized the handouts are and enjoy tracking the themes as a class., Requesting a new guide requires a free LitCharts account. retribution for transgressions such as violence, pride, the oppression of others, and the destruction of the natural world. No son is left with his father, for Gilgamesh takes them all, even the children; yet the king should be a shepherd to his people. Gilgamesh is prideful and courageous while Enkidu is humble and cautious. The epic tells the story of a king, Gilgamesh, whose mother is a goddess. Find related themes, quotes, symbols, characters, and more. He has given you power to bind and to loose, to be the darkness and light of mankind. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); 5. He says, "The meaning of the dream is this. Instant PDF downloads. How would you define a hero in Sumerian culture? Scholars believe that it originated as a series of Sumerian legends and poems about the protagonist of the story,Gilgamesh, which were fashioned into a longer Akkadian epic much later. Gilgamesh essay due. When Gilgamesh saw the creature cast off . His lust leaves no virgin to her lover, neither the warriors daughter nor the wife of the noble; yet this is the shepherd of the city, wise, comely, and resolute. Despite all this, the tale of the epic remains mesmerizing, be that in terms of the monumental adventure Gilgamesh sets out on or in terms of the powerful message the epic delivers to its readers. At the time this was written cedar wood was believed to be magical, it is the preferred wood for coffins because it is resistant to insects. The Epic of Gilgamesh was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in 1853 and is now widely known. read analysis of Civilization and the Fall from Innocence, read analysis of Heroism in Nature vs. At the same time, the young king encapsulates the considerations of mortality and humanity that lie at the heart of the worlds most ancient epic. Teachers and parents! Gilgamesh replied: Where is the man who can clamber to heaven? But part of the natural order is that civilizations come and go, are born and die, the individual human being is rarely remembered, his days on earth are few. It is the story of their becoming human together.". The gods view each other as equals, as they meet in an assembly (cf Tablet XI). The story depicts the short lived friendship of Gilgamesh and Enkidu. March 3, 2023, SNPLUSROCKS20 The Epic of Gilgamesh is a story about the fate of man and, more specifically, the nature of his accomplishments in the context of impending death. He had long hair like a woman's;" 4 While in The Epic of Gilgamesh, resistance to mortality only results in disappointment and despair, acceptance of mortality in The Tale of Sinuhe leads to a happy existence. Ultimately, she sends him to Urshanabi, the boatman, whose help was essential for him to succeed in his search. . After their triumph there, they fashion the tallest tree into a The modern rediscovery of the epic was a watershed moment in the understanding of the Ancient Near East. He finds the key to eternal youth, but then loses it just as quickly to a passing snake (in the process explaining the snakes renewal after shedding its skin). They are supermen, rather than gods. Iteration Retrospective * Backlog refinement Iteration Planning Iteration Review A Product Manager is working for an insurance company and is, Product Management has content authority for the Program Backlog including: The Vision, the Roadmap, driving the PI Objectives, and what else? "The Epic of Gilgamesh" tells of the Sumerian Gilgamesh, the hero king of Uruk, and his adventures. Ishtar acts and behaves like any attractive 16 year old: arrogant, sensual, demanding, jealous, and, importantly, imperious, using sex as a weapon. Through these misadventures, Gilgamesh strives for fame and immortality, but instead finds love with his companion, Enkidu, and a deeper understanding of the limits of humanity and the importance of community. It is a series of Mesopotamian epic poems, woven together over time, that recount the adventures of Gilgamesh, the ruler of Uruk, who lived about 2,600 BCE (endnote 1). Youve successfully purchased a group discount. Like the later flood, this destruction of the cedars (Tablet II) is motivated merely by an excess of power, and excess of the animal that has been joined to the rational. It is said that no one can resist his power. These floods are a metaphor for several things, including rebirth and a new beginning for man, as well as the gods' or God's fury. I shall bring up the dead to eat food like the living; and the hosts of dead will outnumber the living. Oxford: Oxford University Press. You'll be able to access your notes and highlights, make requests, and get updates on new titles. In what kind of writing, using what material, was the Epic of Gilgamesh written on? In the epic The Odyssey, Odysseus is on a journey back home after the ten-year Trojan war. The epic of Gilgamesh is one of the world's oldest surviving pieces of literature. Forget death and seek life! With these encouraging words, Gilgamesh, the star of the eponymous 4000-year-old epic poem, coins the worlds first heroic catchphrase. The work that he and his forebears put into civilization, the sacrifice that civilization demands inherently to itself will all disappear, all swallowed up in human death and the ever changing nature of the material world. Managing risk, helping to ensure value delivery, and. The people of Uruk dislike Gilgamesh's rule and pray for the gods to create his equal to counteract him. The Epic of Gilgamesh is an ancient Sumerian and Akkadian epic poem about the eponymous hero, Gilgamesh. The Epic of Gilgamesh is an ancient manuscript more than 3.000 years old. This too was the work of Gilgamesh, the king, who knew the countries of the world. Creating notes and highlights requires a free LitCharts account. Let my eyes see the sun until they are dazzled with looking. But if death wins, then the work of a genius like Gilgamesh will soon totter. Born two-thirds god and one-third man, Gilgamesh had formidable strength and an intimidating yet appealing physique. As the oldest known literary work, this title and its alternative title, The Epic of Gilgamesh, were likely bestowed by later scholars of the work as descriptors.